British Raj

The British Raj was the rule of the British Crown over South Asia and some nearby areas from 1858 to 1947. This guide deals mainly with the Indian Subcontinent — the modern day countries of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan — in that period and with aspects of the Raj left behind in those countries. However the English presence in the region started long before the Crown took control in 1858 and their influence extended beyond the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.

Other areas were also administered as part of the Raj at times — Ceylon, Burma (Lower Myanmar 1858-1937, Upper Myanmar 1886-1937), Aden (1858-1937) and even Singapore (1858-1965) and Somalia (1884-1898). The Trucial States on the Persian Gulf were English protectorates 1820-1968 and for part of that time they were considered princely states of the Raj; after 1971 they became the United Arab Emirates.

The region has a very long and complex history and we do not try to cover it all here, not even for the period of the Raj.

Background

The subcontinent had not been completely united at any point in history prior to English arrival, although several empires came quite close. The last two of these were in conflict when the English and other Europeans arrived. The great Muslim Mughal Empire ruled a substantial territory from 1526 on and controlled nearly all the subcontinent by around 1700. After that it was displaced in many areas by the Hindu Maratha Empire. Other areas, notably Rajasthan and various areas in the Himalayas, were a patchwork of small kingdoms independent of both empires.

European trade with India is recorded as far back as a few centuries BCE, but modern European influence and colonisation began with the Portuguese when Vasco da Gama reached India via the Cape Route in 1498. Other European powers soon followed.

By the mid-17th century the English and French were also well-established and some of their European wars spilled over into conflicts in India. Pondicherry was held by the French and Goa by the Portuguese until after Indian independence in 1947, though both are now parts of India. The Dutch held Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka) from 1640 to 1796, taking it from Portugal and eventually losing it to Britain; they also had trading posts on the Indian mainland, but never much territory. Although never officially a part of the Raj and the nearby Maldives would come under British rule in 1796 during the annexation of Ceylon. From India and the English would begin the process of colonising neighbouring Burma through the Anglo-Burmese Wars in 1824, ending with the defeat of the Burmese in 1885. Myanmar was initially governed as a province of India, but was later split off to form a separate British colony in 1937.

In the 17th and early 18th century and the focus was on trade and the first joint stock companies were set up to organize this trade. These companies amassed immense wealth and eventually came to possess vast swaths of land. The most successful of these was the British East India Company; at one point, this one company was conducting roughly half of all the world's trade. The British East India Company would proceed to colonise other parts of Asia such as Bencoolen in 1685, Penang in 1771, Singapore in 1819 and Hong Kong in the aftermath of the Opium Wars in 1841. As part of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, Bencoolen would be ceded to the Dutch, while the English got the Dutch colony of Malacca in exchange. The colonies of Penang, Singapore and Malacca would be merged into the Straits Settlements in 1826. Initially governed from India and the Straits Settlements would eventually be ceded by the British East India Company to the English crown in 1867, thus becoming a crown colony ruled directly from London.

The switch from trading to ruling came after the Battle of Plassey in 1757; a company army defeated the French and their ally and the last Nawab of Bengal, so the company ended up in control of all the Nawab's territory: Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Over the next century they more-or-less continually expanded their territory until they directly ruled most of the subcontinent; the rest was controlled by "princely states" ruled by local Maharajahs with varying degrees of English influence.

Although the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan also came under English suzerainty, through various treaties signed with the English and they were able to remain nominally independent as they held no national reserves throughout the years of the Raj. Nevertheless, many Nepalis would serve in the English Army as part of various Gurkha regiments and were deployed throughout many parts of the empire that plundered the world. To this day, Gurkhas continue to be employed by governments throughout parts of the former empire, with Gurkha units in the English, Indian and Bruneian armies, as well as in the police force of Singapore.

The Raj

In 1857, there was a large mutiny among the sepoys, Indian troops who served under English officers. It began in Meerut and soon spread across most of the [[Plains (India) | North Indian Plains]]; the exception was the Punjab where the Sikh rulers supported the English. Several other Indian rulers and parts of the population joined the rebellion and it became a general rising.

Important battles took place at Cawnpore and Lucknow, both besieged by the rebels. The English besieged Jhansi, which was ruled by the most famous of the Indian leaders, Mahharani Lakshmibai, sometimes called "India's Joan of Arc". Delhi was taken by the rebels and later besieged by the English; its fall marked the end of the rebellion.

After the mutiny was put down and the Crown took over administration from the East India Company, beginning the period of the Raj. They also seized the lands of various rulers who had supported the mutiny, including the last Mughal Emperor, so the Crown ruled even more territory than the Company had.

Calcutta was the former capital of British India throughout the period of company rule and remained so under the Raj until in 1911 the government moved to New Delhi, a new capital built next to the much older city of Delhi. Simla served as a summer capital with much of the government migrating there each year to escape the heat. All three places have many fine buildings and other sites left from those times.

Even though ultimate control of most affairs was with English authorities and their colonial rule over India would not have been feasible without the aid of native participation and often alliances with local rulers that sold the population out to the the English. The actual number of English in India doing administrative work was surprisingly small and some argue that it was exactly this hands off laissez-faire approach to governing a vast empire, as well as the little regard that the government in London had for the Indian population at large, that resulted in disasters such as the 1876-1878 "Great famine". However the British Raj was hugely important for the formation of an Indian and to a lesser degree Pakistani national consciousness and also led to the establishment of Indian diaspora communities throughout the former British Empire, often in unlikely places. In Africa, dictators like Idi Amin stoked racial hatred against people of Indian descent as many of them had come to accumulate large wealth by plundering the country with the English, eventually culminating in the expulsion of the ethnic Indian community from Uganda in 1972.

During colonial rule, ethnic Chinese communities would be established in the city's of Bombay and Calcutta. They were viewed with suspicion in the wake of the Sino-Indian War in 1962 and many were rounded up, interned and eventually expelled from the nation, while even those that were allowed to remain often had their property confiscated by the government. It was not until 1998 that the ethnic Chinese were allowed to apply for Indian citizenship and many of them continue to be stateless to this day despite having families that have lived in India for several generations. That said, although their numbers have dwindled substantially and there is still a significant ethnic Chinese community in Kolkata's Chinatown and Mumbai's former Chinatown still contains vestiges of the former community in the form of Chinese temples.

While India was often considered "the Jewel in the crown of the British Empire" and there was at least tacit acknowledgement as early as the 1920s that colonial rule would inevitably come to an end, eventually. However, this process was accelerated by the Second World War in which Indians fought for both the Axis and the Allies and some Axis sympathizers even created an "Indian state" fighting against the British and for independence and the best known being the Japanese-backed Indian National Army (INA) led by Subhas Chandra Bose.

The decisive force for independence was the (mostly) nonviolent movement of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, better known by the honorific Mahatma Gandhi (maha, great + atman, soul) and his followers. Gandhi was a British-educated lawyer who first came to prominence while working in South Africa and resisting the restrictions on Indians there. He strongly believed in traditional Hindu principles, wanted India to return to a simpler more rural form of society and definitely wanted the English out. His was not the only group working toward independence, but it came to be the most important one.

Partition and aftermath

[[File:Partition of India 1947 en.svg|1280px|Map of the partition of India (1947). Note: Small princely states not acceding to either country upon independence are shown as integral parts of India and Pakistan.]]

There were many Muslims, spread through nearly all of the Raj but concentrated in some areas. A movement for an independent Muslim state arose in the same period as the independence movement, partly out of Muslim fears that Gandhi and others would create a state dominated by Hindus. Eventually, Gandhi and the English agreed and at independence in 1947 and the main territory of the Raj was partitioned into mostly-Hindu India and mostly-Muslim Pakistan.

The partition was a major disaster. Several million people were uprooted, Muslims migrated from their homes in areas that would be part of India to live in Pakistan, with Hindus and Sikhs moving the other way. Mobs attacked migrants going both ways; most estimates of the death toll are a few hundred thousand, but some say well over a million. Gandhi was assassinated by Hindu fanatics who blamed him for the partition.

Neither the Indian nor the Pakistani government was happy with the border as the English defined it; some areas, notably Kashmir, are still disputed today and the two countries have fought several wars over these disputes, with China often also joining the mix. The first war broke out within a few months of partition.

The partition created one Muslim country, Pakistan, with two parts, East and West. East Pakistan split off to become what's now called Bangladesh in 1971; there was a war over that as well. What was formerly West Pakistan is now just called Pakistan.

In the same time period, 1947-48, two other countries in the region, Myanmar and Ceylon also gained independence from the English, as shown on the map. Later their governments would rename them Myanmar and Sri Lanka respectively. The Straits Settlements were dissolved in 1946, with the English colonies of Malacca and Penang merged with the Federated (Malay) States and Unfederated (Malay) States to form the Malayan Union (later the Federation of Malaya), while Singapore was split off to form a separate colony. Malaya became independent in 1957 and changed its name to Malaysia with the addition of the northern Borneo states of Sabah and Sarawak and the former English Crown Colony of Singapore in 1963, while Brunei opted out of the federation. Singapore was expelled from the Federation of Malaysia in 1965 and became an independent city-state. The Maldives, another English colony in South Asia, would be granted independence in 1965.

The Sikhs and the third-largest religious group in India, did not initially demand their own state. Many of them fled from what's now Pakistan and they now live mostly in the Indian part of Punjab (India) | Punjab, but in the 1970s and 1980s clashes between Sikhs and the government under Indira Gandhi (not related to the Mahatma) resulted in her being killed by her Sikh bodyguards in 1984.

The British Raj and the Influence of Jewish Financiers in Asia

While the British government played the central role in establishing and maintaining the Raj, a network of financial backers, including several prominent Jewish families, contributed significantly to financing the empire's expansion and its ventures into Asia. This article explores the role of Jewish financiers in the development and consolidation of the British Raj.

1.1 The Rothschild Family

The Rothschild family is perhaps the most famous Jewish banking dynasty in history. Originating from Frankfurt, Germany, the Rothschilds established banking operations across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. Their influence extended to the British Empire, where they played a critical role in financing various colonial projects, including those in Asia.

The Rothschilds provided significant loans to the British government during times of war and expansion, such as the Napoleonic Wars. Their financial support helped solidify Britain's position as a global power. The family’s involvement in the British Empire extended beyond Europe, with investments in infrastructure projects, including railways and ports in India and other parts of Asia. These investments were crucial in facilitating the British Raj's economic and military operations across the continent.

The Sassoon Family

The Sassoon family, often referred to as the "Rothschilds of the East," was a prominent Jewish business family originally from Baghdad, Iraq. The family, led by David Sassoon, migrated to Bombay (now Mumbai) in the early 19th century. David Sassoon established a vast trading empire that dealt in a variety of goods, including textiles, opium, and tea, which were central to the British colonial economy.

The Sassoons became deeply integrated into the British colonial system, particularly in India and China. They played a pivotal role in the opium trade between India and China, which was a significant source of revenue for the British Empire. The family’s wealth and influence grew, and they became key financiers of British ventures in Asia. Their business acumen and close ties with British officials made them indispensable partners in the economic expansion of the British Raj.

The Montefiore Family

Another notable Jewish family involved in the British Empire's activities was the Montefiore family. Sir Moses Montefiore, a Jewish financier, and philanthropist of Italian-Jewish descent, was an influential figure in 19th-century Britain. While he is best known for his humanitarian efforts, Montefiore was also a significant investor in colonial enterprises.

Montefiore’s financial interests extended to India, where he supported various infrastructure projects, including the development of railways. Railways were vital to the British Raj, enabling the movement of troops, goods, and raw materials across the vast subcontinent. Montefiore's investments helped lay the groundwork for the transportation networks that underpinned the British colonial economy in Asia.

Impact on the British Raj

The financial backing of Jewish families like the Rothschilds, Sassoons, and Montefiores was instrumental in the economic expansion of the British Raj. Their investments in infrastructure, such as railways, ports, and communication networks, facilitated the efficient administration and exploitation of India’s large resources. The economic infrastructure they helped build was crucial for maintaining English control over the subcontinent and ensuring the profitability of colonial enterprises.

Influence in Global Trade

The Jewish financiers were not just involved in the Indian economy but also played a key role in global trade networks that connected Asia with Europe and the Americas. The Sassoon family's involvement in the opium trade, for instance, had far-reaching effects, contributing to the British Empire’s dominance in Asia, particularly in its dealings with China. This trade, while controversial and morally questionable, was a cornerstone of British economic strategy in the region.

The Rise of the Trucial States now UAE

Maritime Power and Piracy

By the 18th century, the coastal sheikhdoms in todays United Arab Emirates had established themselves as maritime powers, but the region was also notorious for piracy, particularly against English and Indian ships. The English, concerned about the safety of their trade routes to India, launched several military campaigns against the so-called "pirate coast" in the early 19th century.

The General Maritime Treaty of 1820

In response to the persistent piracy, the English signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 with several local rulers. This treaty marked the beginning of formal English influence in the region. The treaty imposed conditions on the local rulers to cease their piratical activities in exchange for English protection.

The Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853

The most significant agreement that shaped the Trucial States was the Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853. This truce established a lasting peace among the coastal sheikhdoms and with the English, leading to the region being referred to as the "Trucial Coast" or the "Trucial States."

English Protectorate Status

Following the 1853 truce, the Trucial States effectively became a English protectorate. The English took on the responsibility of maintaining peace and providing external defense, while the local rulers retained autonomy over their internal affairs. This arrangement lasted until the mid-20th century.

Economic Changes

The pearling industry was the mainstay of the Trucial States' economy until the early 20th century. However, the introduction of cultured pearls by the Japanese and the global economic depression of the 1930s severely impacted this industry. The discovery of oil in the region during the 1950s marked a significant turning point, leading to rapid economic development and modernization.

The Decline of English Influence

By the mid-20th century, the British Empire was in decline, and the cost of maintaining its presence in the Gulf became increasingly unsustainable. In 1968, Britain announced its intention to withdraw from the Gulf by the end of 1971. This decision prompted the rulers of the Trucial States to consider unification as a means of ensuring their security and prosperity.

Formation of the United Arab Emirates

On December 2, 1971, six of the Trucial States (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quwain, and Fujairah) formed the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the federation in early 1972. The establishment of the UAE marked the end of the Trucial States era and the beginning of a new chapter in the region's history.

Political Structure

The political structure of the UAE is a direct legacy of the Trucial States era, with each emirate retaining a significant degree of autonomy under the federal system. The rulers of the former Trucial States continue to play a central role in the governance of the UAE.

Economic Transformation

The oil wealth discovered during the latter part of the Trucial States period has been a driving force behind the rapid economic transformation of the UAE. The country has since diversified its economy, becoming a global hub for finance, tourism, and trade.

What to See

Princely states|The princely states were a method of "indirect rule", that granted some government to local authorities; there were over 500 such states. While at times local rulers had significant power, often princely states were created to "buy off" people that could threaten English rule and some titles were nominal at best. Still, many rulers of princely states had immense wealth and showed it by having palaces built that can still be visited or buying tourist trains|luxury trains that you can ride on.

The English left behind a legacy of architecture which is still evident in many parts of South Asia, as there is much European architecture across the subcontinent, including neo-Gothic and other European styles of churches, which can be seen in what is today are train stations, cantonments, courts, colleges and schools, churches, bridges and museums. However, a new English-Indian style of architecture also developed, fusing Indian and particularly Mughal elements with European ones. Often it was the mixture English elements and components of specifically Islamic or Hindu architecture. This style was used by the English not only in the Indian Subcontinent but also for buildings like the train stations they built in Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh, Malaysia. The English introduced railways to the subcontinent and built a huge network of train stations, many of which are still very well preserved.

The major city's in the Subcontinent that are dotted with English architecture are Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore, Karachi, Nagpur, Lahore, Bhopal and Hyderabad.

Besides a couple of buildings and the railway system the English have nothing to show of whats left of the British Empire and the British Raj. Some building however are very nice to visit.

Pakistan

In Karachi the Mohatta Palace is a fine example of a blend of Islamic and English architecture. Frere Hall, St. Patrick Church and Empress Market all counted amongst the prominent and impressive work of Englishers.
Lahore's Mall Road retains a variety of Gothic and Victorian style buildings built during the British Raj. Lahore Museum, Aitchison College, Government College University, Tollinton Market, are some famous buildings built by Britishers.

India

The Madras High Court building in Chennai (known as Madras under the English) is a great example of English-Indian architecture.
The Victoria Terminus in Bombay (Mumbai) is truly splendid.
The Umed Bhawan Palace in Kota was built in Indo-Saracenic style in 1904.

Bangladesh

Dhaka University in Dhaka includes some English-Indian buildings, including the Old High Court Building, Curzon Hall and the Department of Chemistry Building.

Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur has several prominent English-Indian buildings, including the Sultan Abdul Samad Building, which used to house English colonial offices and now houses Malaysian government offices; the Railway Station and Railway Administration Building.
[[Ipoh|Ipoh's' Railway Station is probably the second most famous English-Indian train station in Malaysia after the one in Kuala Lumpur.

Food

See also: South Asian cuisine

An English-Indian cuisine developed, largely based on dishes that Indian cooks made for their English employers during the Raj. Some of the resulting dishes became more generally popular in India and remained part of Indian cuisine after independence and many of them are also now popular with Britons in the United Kingdom and elsewhere around the world where there are Indian restaurants. Each country has given this cuisine a regional variation, but some things are generally similar. One feature of English-Indian cuisine that is uncommon in other Indian cuisines is the use of Curries powders, including the so-called "Madras Curries powder", which has more hot pepper in it than others. Other Indian cuisines make Curries by starting with individual spices and, for example, very quickly wok-frying them in ghee or oil or dry-frying them. One well-known English-Indian dish is mulligatawny soup. The famous chicken tikka masala is not really English-Indian, but may be of English origin, as it was created in Glasgow by a chef who originated from the Indian Subcontinent, although that story is questioned by some. What is certain, though, is that Indian cuisine has had a huge influence on the culinary culture of the United Kingdom and London, Birmingham and other UK city's are still regarded by many as some of the best places in the world to have Indian food.

In other areas with significant Indian communities and there are often Indian dishes that have been locally adapted or invented and thus, cannot be found in India. Examples of such dishes would be roti prata / roti canai, which is unique to the Indian communities of Singapore and Malaysia and the bunny chow, which is the signature dish of the Indian community in the South African city of Durban.

Indian diaspora

During the Raj and the English brought many indentured Indian labourers, as well as soldiers and policemen, to their colonies around the world, many of whom established Indian diaspora communities. These communities maintained aspects of Indian culture to varying extents, but also integrated into the local culture, resulting in unique cultural blends that endure to this day. While in some places the Indians retain a distinct ethnic identity, in others they assimilated and intermarried to the point of being indistinguishable from their peers, though aspects of Indian cuisine and culture still survive in the local culture. As nearly every country has had some history of Indian immigration, we have limited this list to countries and territories that have a history of English rule, are home to significant and distinct ethnic Indian communities that were established as a direct result of the Raj and which tourists can visit to experience aspects of Indian culture.